TOKOH ISLAM : IBNU RUSYD (Ibn Rušd/ (ابن رشد) /Averroes)

Ibn Rušd (ابن رشد)
Averroes
Statue of Averroes in Cordoba
Full name ʾAbū l-Walīd Muḥammad ibn ʾAḥmad ibn Rušd
Born 1126
Cordoba, Almoravid Empire (present-day Spain)
Died December 10, 1198 (aged 71–72)
Marrakesh, Morocco
Era Medieval era (Islamic Golden Age)
Region Muslim world, Western philosophy
School Sunni Islam (Maliki madh'hab)
Averroism
Main interests Islamic theology, Philosophy, Mathematics, Medicine, Astronomy
Notable ideas Reconciliation of Aristotelianism with Islam
Influenced by[show]
Influenced[show]


ʾAbū l-Walīd Muḥammad bin ʾAḥmad bin Rušd (Arabic: أبو الوليد محمد بن احمد بن رشد‎), better known just as Ibn Rushd (Arabic: ابن رشد‎), and in European literature as Averroes (play /əˈvɛroʊ.iːz/; 1126 – December 10, 1198), was a Muslim polymath; a master of Aristotelian philosophy, Islamic philosophy, Islamic theology, Maliki law and jurisprudence, logic, psychology, politics, Arabic music theory, and the sciences of medicine, astronomy, geography, mathematics, physics and celestial mechanics. He was born in Córdoba, Al Andalus, modern-day Spain, and died in Marrakesh, Morocco. His school of philosophy is known as Averroism.

Ibn Rushd was a defender of Aristotelian philosophy against claims from Islamic theologians such as Ghazali who feared that such teachings would become an affront to the teachings of Islam.[2]
Contents
[hide]

1 Name
2 Biography
3 Works
4 Science
4.1 Medicine
5 Philosophy
5.1 Commentaries on Aristotle and Plato
5.2 Independent philosophical works
5.3 System of philosophy
6 Significance
7 Jurisprudence and law
8 Cultural influences
9 List of works
9.1 Logic
9.1.1 Short Commentary
9.1.2 Middle Commentaries
9.1.3 Long Commentaries
9.1.4 Questions
9.1.4.1 Questions on the Isagoge
9.1.4.2 Questions on the Categories
9.1.4.3 Questions on Peri hermeneias
9.1.4.4 Questions on the Prior Analytics
9.1.4.5 Questions on the Posterior Analytics
9.2 Philosophy of Nature
9.2.1 Physics
9.2.2 On the Heavens
9.2.3 On Generation and Corruption
9.2.4 Meteorology
9.2.5 Biology
9.2.6 Questions
9.3 Psychology
9.3.1 Commentaries
9.3.2 Treatises on the Intellect
9.3.3 ʿAbd Allāh Ibn Rušd (son of Averroes)
9.3.4 Anonymous
9.4 Metaphysics
9.4.1 Commentaries
9.5 Practical Philosophy
9.6 Mathematics
10 See also
11 Notes
12 Further reading
13 External links

[edit] Name

Averroes' name is also seen as Averroës, Averroès or Averrhoës, indicating that the "o" and the "e" form separate syllables. Averroes is a Latinisation of a Hebrew transcription of the Arab name Ibn Rushd.[3]

According to Ernest Renan, he was also known as Ibin-Ros-din, Filius Rosadis, Ibn-Rusid, Ben-Raxid, Ibn-Ruschod, Den-Resched, Aben-Rassad, Aben-Rois, Aben-Rasd, Aben- Rust, Avenrosdy Avenryz, Adveroys, Benroist, Avenroyth, Averroysta, etc.[4]
[edit] Biography
Ibn Rushd was the preeminent philosopher in the history of Al-Andalus.

Averroes was born in Córdoba to a family with a long and well-respected tradition of legal and public service. His grandfather Abu Al-Walid Muhammad (d. 1126) was chief judge of Córdoba under the Almoravids. His father, Abu Al-Qasim Ahmad, held the same position until the Almoravids were replaced by the Almohads in 1146.[5]

Averroes’s education followed a traditional path, beginning with studies in Hadith, linguistics, jurisprudence and scholastic theology. Throughout his life he wrote extensively on Philosophy and Religion, attributes of God, origin of the universe, Metaphysics and Psychology. It is generally believed that he was perhaps once tutored by Ibn Bajjah (Avempace). His medical education was directed under Abu Jafar ibn Harun of Trujillo in Seville.[6] Averroes began his career with the help of Ibn Tufail ("Aben Tofail" to the West), the author of Hayy ibn Yaqdhan and philosophic vizier of Almohad king Abu Yaqub Yusuf who was an amateur of philosophy and science. It was Ibn Tufail who introduced him to the court and to Ibn Zuhr ("Avenzoar" to the West), the great Muslim physician, who became Averroes's teacher and friend. Averroes's aptitude for medicine was noted by his contemporaries and can be seen in his major enduring work Kitab al-Kulyat fi al-Tibb (Generalities) the work was influenced by the Kitab al-Taisir fi al-Mudawat wa al-Tadbir (Particularities) of Ibn Zuhr.[7] Averroes later reported how it was also Ibn Tufail that inspired him to write his famous commentaries on Aristotle:

Abu Bakr ibn Tufayl summoned me one day and told me that he had heard the Commander of the Faithful complaining about the disjointedness of Aristotle's mode of expression — or that of the translators — and the resultant obscurity of his intentions. He said that if someone took on these books who could summarize them and clarify their aims after first thoroughly understanding them himself, people would have an easier time comprehending them. “If you have the energy,” Ibn Tufayl told me, “you do it. I'm confident you can, because I know what a good mind and devoted character you have, and how dedicated you are to the art. You understand that only my great age, the cares of my office — and my commitment to another task that I think even more vital — keep me from doing it myself.”[8]

Averroes was also a student of Ibn Bajjah ("Avempace" to the West), another famous Islamic philosopher who greatly influenced his own Averroist thought. However, while the thought of his mentors Ibn Tufail and Ibn Bajjah were mystic to an extent, the thought of Averroes was purely rationalist. Together, the three men are considered the greatest Andalusian philosophers.[5]

In 1160, Averroes was made Qadi (judge) of Seville and he served in many court appointments in Seville, Cordoba, and Morocco during his career. Sometimes during the reign of Yaqub al-Mansur, Averroes' political career was abruptly ended and he faced severe criticism from the Fuqaha (Islamic jurists) of the time.[9]

A contemporary of Averroes, Abdelwahid al-Marrakushi writing in 1224, reported that there were secret and public reasons for his falling out of favor with Yaqub al-Mansour:[9]

And in his days [Yaqub al-Mansur], Abu al-Walid Ibn Rushd faced his severe ordeal and there were two causes for this; one is known and the other is secret. The secret cause, which was the major reason, is that Abu al-Walid [Averroes] —may God have mercy on his soul— when summarizing, commenting and expending upon Aristotle's book "History of Animals" wrote: "And I saw the Giraffe at the garden of the king of the Berbers".
And that is the same way he would mention another king of some other people or land, as it is frequently done by writers, but he omitted that those working for the service of the king should glorify him and observe the usual protocol. This was why they held a grudge against him [Averroes] but initially, they did not show it and in reality, Abu al-Walid wrote that inadvertently...Then a number of his enemies in Cordoba, who were jealous of him and were competing with him both in knowledge and nobility, went to Yaqub al-Mansur with excerpts of Abu Walid's work on some old philosophers which were in his own handwriting. They took one phrase out of context that said: "and it was shown that Venus is one of the Gods" and presented it to the king who then summoned the chiefs and noblemen of Cordoba and said to Abu al-Walid in front of them "Is this your handwriting?". Abu al-Walid then denied and the king said "May God curse the one who wrote this" and ordered that Abu al-Walid be exiled and all the philosophy books to be gathered and burned...And I saw, when I was in Fes, these books being carried on horses in great quantities and burned[9]
—Abdelwahid al-Marrakushi, "The Pleasant Book in Summarizing the History of the Maghreb", (1224)

Averroes's strictly rationalist views collided with the more orthodox views of Abu Yusuf Ya'qub al-Mansur, who therefore eventually banished Averroes, though he had previously appointed him as his personal physician. Averroes was not reinstated until shortly before his death in the year 1198 AD. He devoted the rest of his life (more than 30 years) to his philosophical writings.
[edit] Works
Imaginary debate between Averroes and Porphyry. Monfredo de Monte Imperiali Liber de herbis, 14th century.[10]
Commentarium magnum Averrois in Aristotelis De Anima libros. French manuscript, third quarter of the 13th century

Averroes's works were spread over 20,000 pages covering a variety of different subjects, including early Islamic philosophy, logic in Islamic philosophy, Arabic medicine, Arabic mathematics, Arabic astronomy, Arabic grammar, Islamic theology, Sharia (Islamic law), and Fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence). In particular, his most important works dealt with Islamic philosophy, medicine and Fiqh. He wrote at least 67 original works, which included 28 works on philosophy, 20 on medicine, 8 on law, 5 on theology, and 4 on grammar, in addition to his commentaries on most of Aristotle's works and his commentary on Plato's The Republic.[5]

He wrote commentaries on most of the surviving works of Aristotle. These were not based on primary sources (it is not known whether he knew Greek), but rather on Arabic translations. There were three levels of commentary: the Jami, the Talkhis and the Tafsir which are, respectively, a simplified overview, an intermediate commentary with more critical material, and an advanced study of Aristotelian thought in a Muslim context. The terms are taken from the names of different types of commentary on the Qur'an. It is not known whether he wrote commentaries of all three types on all the works: in most cases only one or two commentaries survive.

He did not have access to any text of Aristotle's Politics. As a substitute for this, he commented on Plato's The Republic, arguing that the ideal state there described was the same as the original constitution of the Arab Caliphate,[5] as well as the Almohad state of Ibn Tumart.

His most important original philosophical work was The Incoherence of the Incoherence (Tahafut al-tahafut), in which he defended Aristotelian philosophy against al-Ghazali's claims in The Incoherence of the Philosophers (Tahafut al-falasifa). Al-Ghazali argued that Aristotelianism, especially as presented in the writings of Avicenna, was self-contradictory and an affront to the teachings of Islam. Averroes' rebuttal was two-pronged: he contended both that al-Ghazali's arguments were mistaken and that, in any case, the system of Avicenna was a distortion of genuine Aristotelianism so that al-Ghazali was aiming at the wrong target. Other works were the Fasl al-Maqal, which argued for the legality of philosophical investigation under Islamic law, and the Kitab al-Kashf, which argued against the proofs of Islam advanced by the Ash'arite school and discussed what proofs, on the popular level, should be used instead.

Averroes is also a highly regarded legal scholar of the Maliki school. Perhaps his best-known work in this field is Bidāyat al-Mujtahid wa Nihāyat al-Muqtaṣid ( بداية المجتهد و نهاية المقتصد), a textbook of Maliki doctrine in a comparative framework.

Jacob Anatoli translated several of the works of Averroes from Arabic into Hebrew in the 13th century. Many of them were later translated from Hebrew into Latin by Jacob Mantino and Abraham de Balmes. Other works were translated directly from Arabic into Latin by Michael Scot. Many of his works in logic and metaphysics have been permanently lost, while others, including some of the longer Aristotelian commentaries, have only survived in Latin or Hebrew translation, not in the original Arabic. The fullest version of his works is in Latin, and forms part of the multi-volume Juntine edition of Aristotle published in Venice 1562-1574.
[edit] Science
[edit] Medicine

Averroes wrote a medical encyclopedia called Kulliyat ("Generalities", i.e. general medicine), known in its Latin translation as Colliget. He also made a compilation of the works of Galen, and wrote a commentary on the Canon of Medicine (Qanun fi 't-tibb) of Avicenna (Ibn Sina) (980-1037).
[edit] Philosophy
[edit] Commentaries on Aristotle and Plato
Commentarium magnum Averrois in Aristotelis De Anima libros. French Manuscript, third quarter of the 13th century

He wrote commentaries on most of the surviving works of Aristotle. These were not based on primary sources (it is not known whether he knew Greek), but rather on Arabic translations. On each work, he wrote the Jami, the Talkhis and the Tafsir which are, respectively, a simplified overview, an intermediate commentary with more critical material, and an advanced study of Aristotelian thought in a Muslim context. The terms are taken from the names of different types of commentary on the Qur'an.

He did not have access to any text of Aristotle's Politics. As a substitute for this, he commented on Plato's Republic, arguing that the state there described was the same as the original constitution of the Arabs.
[edit] Independent philosophical works

His most important original philosophical work was The Incoherence of the Incoherence (Tahafut al-tahafut), in which he defended Aristotelian philosophy against al-Ghazali's claims in The Incoherence of the Philosophers (Tahafut al-falasifa). Al-Ghazali argued that Aristotelianism, especially as presented in the writings of Avicenna, was self-contradictory and an affront to the teachings of Islam. Averroes' rebuttal was two-pronged: he contended both that al-Ghazali's arguments were mistaken and that, in any case, the system of Avicenna was a distortion of genuine Aristotelianism so that al-Ghazali was aiming at the wrong target.

Other works were the Fasl al-Maqal, which argued for the legality of philosophical investigation under Islamic law, and the Kitab al-Kashf.

Jacob Anatoli translated his works from Arabic to Hebrew in the 13th century. Many of them were later translated from Hebrew to Latin by Jacob Mantino and others. Other works were translated directly from Arabic to Latin by Michael Scot. Many of his works in logic and metaphysics have been permanently lost, while others, including some of the longer Aristotelian commentaries, have only survived in Latin or Hebrew translation, not in the original Arabic. The fullest version of his works is in Latin, and forms part of the multi-volume Juntine edition of Aristotle published in Venice 1562-1574.
[edit] System of philosophy
Main article: Averroism

Averroes tried to reconcile Aristotle's system of thought with Islam. According to him, there is no conflict between religion and philosophy, rather that they are different ways of reaching the same truth. He believed in the eternity of the universe. He also held that the soul is divided into two parts, one individual and one divine; while the individual soul is not eternal, all humans at the basic level share one and the same divine soul. Averroes has two kinds of Knowledge of Truth. The first being his knowledge of truth of religion being based in faith and thus could not be tested, nor did it require training to understand. The second knowledge of truth is philosophy, which was reserved for an elite few who had the intellectual capacity to undertake its study.
[edit] Significance
Averroes, detail of the fresco The School of Athens by Raphael

Averroes is most famous for his translations and commentaries of Aristotle's works, which had been mostly forgotten in the West. Before 1150 only a few translated works of Aristotle existed in Latin Europe (i.e. excluding Greek Byzantium), and they were not studied much or given as much credence by monastic scholars. It was in part through the Latin translations of Averroes's work beginning in the 12th century that the legacy of Aristotle was recovered in the West.

Averroes's work on Aristotle spans almost three decades, and he wrote commentaries on almost all of Aristotle's work except for Aristotle's Politics, to which he did not have access. Hebrew translations of his work also had a lasting impact on Jewish philosophy. His ideas were assimilated by Siger of Brabant and Thomas Aquinas and others (especially in the University of Paris) within the Christian scholastic tradition which valued Aristotelian logic. Famous scholastics such as Aquinas believed him to be so important they did not refer to him by name, simply calling him "The Commentator" and calling Aristotle "The Philosopher." Averroes also greatly influenced philosophy in the Islamic world. His death coincides with a change in the culture of Al-Andalus. In his work Fasl al-Maqāl (translated a. o. as The Decisive Treatise), he stresses the importance of analytical thinking as a prerequisite to interpret the Qur'an.

Averroes's treatise on Plato's Republic has played a major role in both the transmission and the adaptation of the Platonic tradition in the West[citation needed]. It has been a primary source in medieval political philosophy.

Averroes was one of those who predicted the existence of a new world beyond the Atlantic Ocean.[11]
[edit] Jurisprudence and law

Averroes is also a highly-regarded legal scholar of the Maliki school. Perhaps his best-known work in this field is "Bidāyat al-Mujtahid wa Nihāyat al-Muqtaṣid," a textbook of Maliki doctrine in a comparative framework. He is also the author of "al-Bayān wa’l-Taḥṣīl, wa’l-Sharḥ wa’l-Tawjīh wa’l-Ta`līl fi Masā’il al-Mustakhraja," a long and detailed commentary based on the "Mustakhraja" of Muḥammad al-`Utbī al-Qurtubī.
[edit] Cultural influences

Reflecting the respect which medieval European scholars paid to him, Averroes is named by Dante in The Divine Comedy with the great pagan philosophers whose spirits dwell in "the place that favor owes to fame" in Limbo.

Averroes appears in a short story by Jorge Luis Borges, entitled "Averroes's Search", in which he is portrayed trying to find the meanings of the words tragedy and comedy. He is briefly mentioned in the novel Ulysses by James Joyce alongside Maimonides. He appears to be waiting outside the walls of the ancient city of Cordoba in Alamgir Hashmi's poem In Cordoba. He is also the main character in Destiny, a Youssef Chahine film. The asteroid 8318 Averroes was named in his honor.
[edit] List of works
[edit] Logic
[edit] Short Commentary

[1] Short Commentary on Aristotle's Organon / Epitome in Libros Logicæ Aristotelis / Tajrīd al-ʾaqāwīl al-ḍarūrīya min ṣināʿat al-manṭiq (Aka: Al-ḍarūrī; Al-ḍarūrī fī l-manṭiq; Kitāb fī l-manṭiq; Muḫtaṣar fī l-manṭiq) ca. 552/1157

[edit] Middle Commentaries

[2] Middle Commentary on the Isagoge / Talḫīṣ madḫal fī Fūrfūrīyūš (Aka: Talḥīṣ kitāb ʾĪsāġūjī)

Talḫīṣ kitāb ʾArisṭū fī l-manṭiq

[3] Middle Commentary on the Categories / Talḫīṣ kitāb al-maqūlāt
[4] Middle Commentary on Peri hermeneias / Talḫīṣ kitāb al-ʿibāra
[5] Middle Commentary on the Prior Analytics / Media Expositio in Libros Priorum Resolutoriorum / Talḫīṣ kitāb al-qiyās
[6] Middle Commentary on the Posterior Analytics / Media Expositio in Libros Posteriorum Resolutoriorum / Talḫīṣ kitāb al-burhān (Aka: Talḫīṣ kitāb al-burhān li-ʾArisṭūṭālīs; Talḫīṣ kitāb al-burhān lahū)
[7] Middle Commentary on the Topics / Talḫīṣ kitāb al-jadal
[8] Middle Commentary on the Sophistici Elenchi / Talḫīṣ kitāb al-safsaṭa
[9] Middle Commentary on the Rhetoric / Talḫīṣ al-ḫiṭāba [570/1175 or 571/1176]
[10] Middle Commentary on the Poetics / Talḫīṣ kitāb al-šiʿr

[edit] Long Commentaries

[11] Long Commentary on the Prior Analytics (?) / Šarḥ kitāb al-qiyās li-ʾArisṭūṭālīs (Aka: Kitāb šarḥ kitāb al-qiyās li-ʾArisṭū)
[12] Long Commentary on the Posterior Analytics / Šarḥ kitāb al-burhān

[edit] Questions

[13] Questions on Logic / Quæsita in libros logicæ Aristotelis / (Part of: Masāʿil fī l-ḥikma, aka: Muqaddimāt fī l-ḥikma)

[edit] Questions on the Isagoge

[13.1] On Alfarabi on the Isagoge about genus and differentia / Kalām ʿalā qawl ʾAbī Naṣr fī l-madḫal wa-l-jins wa-l-faṣl yuštarikān

[edit] Questions on the Categories

[13.2] On substantial and accidental universals / Al-qawl fī kullīyāt al-jawhar wa-kullīyāt al-ʾaʿraḍ (Aka: Bāb ʿalā maqūla ʾawwal kitāb ʾAbī Naṣr (?), Maqāla ʿalā ʾawwal maqūla ʾAbī Naṣr (?))

[edit] Questions on Peri hermeneias

[13.3] On the copula and on derived nouns / Maqāla fī l-kalima wa-l-ism al-muštaqq (Aka: Kalām lahū ʿalā l-kalima wa-l-ism al-muštaqq, Min kitāb al-ʿibāra li-ʾAbī Naṣr)
[13.4] On compound and simple predicates / Min kitāb al-ʿibāra (Aka: De prædicatis compositis et divisis)

[edit] Questions on the Prior Analytics

[13.5] On the definition: Critique of the positions of Alexander and Alfarabi / Al-qawl fī l-ḥadd wa-naqd mā ḏahaba ʾilayhī al-ʾIskandar wa-ʾAbū Naṣr (Aka: Maqāla fī l-ḥadd (juzʾ al-qiyās) wa-naqd maḏahabay al-ʾIskandar wa-ʾAbī Naṣr; De definitione termini)
[13.6] Critique of Avicenna's position on the conversion of premises / Naqd maḏhab Ibn Sīnā fī inʿikās al-qaḍāyā (Aka: Maqāla fī naqd maḏhab Ibn Sīnā fī ʿaks al-qaḍāyā; De conversionibus)
[13.7] Critique of Themistius's position on the contingent syllogisms in the first and second figure / Naqd maḏhab Tāmisṭiyūs fī l-maqāyīs al-mumkina fī l-šaklayn al-ʾawwal wa-l-ṯānī (Aka: De conditione syllogismorum contingentium circa duo eorum attributa, videlicet de numerositate illationis, et de figura in qua non concludunt)
[13.8] Chapter on absolute premises / Maqāla fī l-muqaddima al-muṭlaqa (Aka: Quid sit propositio absoluta id est de inesse)
[13.9] On the types of conclusions in compound syllogisms / Al-qawl fī jihāt al-natāʾij fī l-maqāyīs al-murakkaba wa-fī maʿnā al-maqūl ʿalā l-kull
[13.10] Chapter on the dependency of the types of conclusions from the types of premises / Maqāla [...] fī luzūm jihāt al-natāʾij li-jihāt al-muqaddimāt
[13.11] On the mixing of contingent and necessary premises / De mistione contingentis et necessarii
[13.12] Chapter on the dependency of the conclusions from mixed syllogisms
[13.13] Chapter on the meaning of "predicated on everything" / Maqāla [...] fī maʿnā al- maqūl ʿalā l-kull wa-ġayr ḏālika
[13.14] Chapter on conditional syllogisms / Maqāla fī l-maqāʾis al-šarṭīya (Aka: Maqāla fī l-qiyās; De conditionali, an per ipsum ostendatur quæsitum primum ignotum)
[13.15] Exposition of Alfarabi's commentary on the first book of the Prior Analytics / Talḫīṣ šarḥ ʾAbī Naṣr [li-]l-maqāla al-ʾūlā min al-qiyās li-l-ḥakīm...

[edit] Questions on the Posterior Analytics

[13.16] On the predicates in demonstrations / Al-qawl fī l-maḥmūlāt al-barāhīn (Aka: Epistola de primitate prædicatorum in demonstrationibus)
[13.17] On Alfarabi's Book on Demonstration / Min kitāb al-burhān li-ʾAbī Naṣr
[13.18] On the definition of individuals / Al-qawl fī ḥadd al-šaḫṣ (Aka: An definitio sit particularis aut universalis tantum)
[13.19] On the three types of definition in relation to demonstrations / De triplici genere diffinitionum in ordine ad demonstrationem
[13.20] On whether the middle term is the cause of the major term / De medio demonstrationis an sit causa maioris extremi
[13.21] Treatise on the disagreement of Alfarabi and Aristotle on the order of the Posterior Analytics and the rules of demonstrations and definitions / Kitāb fī mā ḫālafa ʾAbū Naṣr li-ʾArisṭū fī kitāb al-burhān min tartībihī wa-qawānīn al-barāhīn wa-l-ḥudūd (Aka: De conditionibus præmissarum demonstrationis)
[13.22] On the conditions for the necessity of the premises of demonstrations / De conditionibus quæ requiruntur ad necessitatem præmissarum demonstrationum
[13.23] On how a demonstration can be transferred from one science to another / Quomodo fiat translatio ab una arte in aliam
[13.24] On demonstrations quia / De demonstrationibus quia
[13.25] On the sense in which the definition is better known than the thing defined / Quomodo definitio sit notior ipso definito
[13.26] On the definitions which are said to differ from demonstrations in their order / De definitionibus quæ dicuntur positione differentes a demonstratione

[edit] Philosophy of Nature
[edit] Physics

[14] Short Commentary on the Physics / Jawāmiʿ al-samāʾ al-ṭabīʿī (Part of: Al-jawāmiʿ fī l-falsafa; Jawāmiʿ kutub ʾArisṭūṭālīs fī l-ṭabīʿīyāt wa-l-ʾilāhīyāt)
[15] Middle Commentary on the Physics / Talḫīṣ kitāb al-samāʾ al- al-ṭabīʿī (Aka: [...] li-ʾArisṭūṭālīs; Talḫīṣ al- ṭabīʿī; Wa-laḫaṣa kitāb al-samāʿ al-ṭabīʿī li-ʾArisṭūṭālīs)
[16] Long Commentary on the Physics / Šarḥ [kitāb] al-samāʾ al-ṭabīʿī

[edit] On the Heavens

[17] Short Commentary on De cælo / Jawāmiʿ al-samāʾ wa-l-ʿālam (Part of: Al-jawāmiʿ fī l-falsafa; Jawāmiʿ kutub ʾArisṭūṭālīs fī l-ṭabīʿīyāt wa-l-ʾilāhīyāt)
[18] Middle Commentary on De cælo / Talḫīṣ [kitāb] al-samāʾ wa-l-ʿālam
[19] Long Commentary on De cælo / Šarḥ kitāb al-samāʾ wa-l-ʿālam (Aka: Šarḥ kitāb al-samāʾ wa-l-ʿālam li-ʾArisṭūṭālīs; Šarḥ al-samāʾ wa-l-ʿālam)
[20] De substantia orbis

[edit] On Generation and Corruption

[21] Short Commentary on De generatione et corruptione / Jawāmiʿ kitāb al-kaun wa-l-fasād (Part of: Al-jawāmiʿ fī l-falsafa; Jawāmiʿ kutub ʾArisṭūṭālīs fī l-ṭabīʿīyāt wa-l-ʾilāhīyāt)
[22] Middle Commentary on De generatione et corruptione / Talḫīṣ [kitāb] al-kaun wa-l-fasād 567/1172

[edit] Meteorology

[23] Short Commentary on the Meteorology / Jawāmiʿ kitāb al-ʾaṯār al-ʿulwīya (Part of: Al-jawāmiʿ fī l-falsafa; Jawāmiʿ kutub ʾArisṭūṭālīs fī l-ṭabīʿīyāt wa-l-ʾilāhīyāt)
[24] Middle Commentary on the Meteorology / Talḫīṣ [kitāb] al-ʾāṯār al-ʿulwīya

[edit] Biology

[25] Middle(?) Commentary on De animalibus / Talḫīṣ tisʿ maqālāt min kitāb al-ḥayawān (Aka: Talḫīṣ tisʿ maqālāt min kitāb al-ḥayawān wa-ḏālika min al-ḥādīya ʿašr ʾilā ʾāḫar al-diwān; Talḫīṣ fī l-maqāla al-ḥādīya ʿašara min kitāb al-ḥayawān li-ʾArisṭūṭālīs wa-ḏālika tisʿ maqālāt; Kitāb al-ḥayawān) 565/1169
[26] Chapter on animals / Maqāla fī l-ḥayawān (Aka: Kalām lahū ʿalā l-ḥayawān)
[27] Short Commentary on De plantis

[edit] Questions

[28] Questions on the Philosophy of Nature / Sefer ha-derušim ha-ṭibʿiyim

[edit] Psychology
[edit] Commentaries

[29] "Book on the Soul" or Short Commentary on De anima / Kitāb al-nafs
[30] Middle Commentary on De anima / Talḫīṣ kitāb al-nafs 577/1181
[31] Long Commentary on De anima / Šarḥ kitāb al-nafs (Aka: Šarḥ kitāb al-nafs li-ʾArisṭūṭālīs)
[32] Commentary on the Parva naturalia / Talḫīṣ al-ḥiss wa-l-maḥsūs. Sevilla, 13. Rabīʿ al-ʾāḫar 565 [ca. 01/04/1170]

[edit] Treatises on the Intellect

[33] Enquiry whether the intellect in us, named the material intellect, is able to know in the end the separate forms or not =Epistle on the possibility of conjunction / Kitāb fī l-faḥṣ hal yumkin al-ʿaql ʾallaḏī fīnā wa-huwa al-musammā bi-l-hayūlānī ʾan yaʿqila al-ṣuwar al-mufāriqa bi-ʾāḫirihī ʾau lā yumkin ḏālika wa-huwa al-maṭlūb ʾallaḏī kāna ʾArisṭūṭālīs waʿadanā bi-l-faḥṣ ʿanhū fī kitāb al-nafs (Aka: ʾIggeret ʾefšarut ha-debequt)
[34] Chapter on the conjunction of the separate intellect with man / Maqāla fī ttiṣāl al-ʿaql al-mufāriq bi-l-ʾinsān (Aka: Masʾala fī ʿilm al-nafs suʾila ʿanhā fa-ʾajāba fīha; Epistola de connexione intellectus abstracti cum homine)
[35] Chapter on the conjunction of intellect with man / Maqāla fī ttiṣāl al-ʿaql bi-l-ʾinsān (Aka: Maqāla ʾaiḍan fī ttiṣāl al-ʿaql bi-l-ʾinsān; Maqāla fī ḏālika ʾaiḍan)
[36] Chapter on the intellect / Maqāla fī l-ʿaql (Aka: Maqāla ʾuḫrā fī ʿilm al-nafs ʾaiḍan)
[37] Commentary on Alexander's treatise on the intellect / Šarḥ maqālat al-ʾIskandar fī l-ʿaql
[38] Commentary on Avempace's epistle on the conjunction of the intellect with man / Šarḥ risālat ittiṣāl al-ʿaql bi-l-ʾinsān li-bn al-Ṣāʾiġ

[edit] ʿAbd Allāh Ibn Rušd (son of Averroes)

[39] On whether the active intellect unites with the material intellect whilst it is clothed with the body / Hal yattaṣilu bi-l-ʿaql al-hayūlānī al-ʿaql al-faʿʿāl wa-huwa multabis bi-l-jism

[edit] Anonymous

[40] De animæ beatudine / Tractatus Aueroys de perfectione naturali intellectus secundum mentem philosophi

[edit] Metaphysics
[edit] Commentaries

[41] Short Commentary on the Metaphysics / Jawāmiʿ kitāb mā baʿd al-ṭabīʿa (Part of: Jawāmiʿ kutub ʾArisṭūṭālīs fī l-ṭabīʿīyāt wa-l-ʾilāhīyāt; Al-gawāmiʿ fī l-falsafa)
[42] Middle Commentary on the Metaphysics / Talḫīṣ mā baʿd al-ṭabīʿa (Aka: Talḫīṣ kitāb mā baʿd al-ṭabīʿa li-ʾArisṭūṭālīs; Kitāb talḫīṣ mā baʿd al-ṭabīʿa li-ʾArisṭūṭālīs; Averrois in septem libros media expositio ab Hælia Cretensi in latinum conversa, Ante hac nunquam excusa, summis vigiliis elaborata) Cordova, 25. Rabīʿ al-ʾāḫar 570 [11/23/1174].
[43] Long Commentary on the Metaphysics / Šarḥ mā baʿd al-ṭabīʿa.

[edit] Practical Philosophy

[44] Middle Commentary on the Nicomachean Ethics
[45] Epitome of Plato's Republic

[edit] Mathematics

[46] Epitome of the Almagest





BIOGRAFI SINGKAT DALAM BAHASA INDONESIA

Ibnu Rusyd
Dari Wikipedia bahasa Indonesia, ensiklopedia bebas
Ibnu Rusyd atau Averroes, dari detail lukisan Triunfo de Santo Tomás, karya artis Florence abad ke-14 Andrea Bonaiuto.

Ibnu Rusyd (Ibnu Rushdi, Ibnu Rusyid, 1126 - Marrakesh, Maroko, 10 Desember 1198) dalam bahasa Arab ابن رشد dan dalam bahasa Latin Averroes, adalah seorang filsuf dari Spanyol (Andalusia).
[sunting] Ikhtisar

Abu Walid Muhammad bin Rusyd lahir di Kordoba (Spanyol) pada tahun 520 Hijriah (1128 Masehi). Ayah dan kakek Ibnu Rusyd adalah hakim-hakim terkenal pada masanya. Ibnu Rusyd kecil sendiri adalah seorang anak yang mempunyai banyak minat dan talenta. Dia mendalami banyak ilmu, seperti kedokteran, hukum, matematika, dan filsafat. Ibnu Rusyd mendalami filsafat dari Abu Ja'far Harun dan Ibnu Baja.

Ibnu Rusyd adalah seorang jenius yang berasal dari Andalusia dengan pengetahuan ensiklopedik. Masa hidupnya sebagian besar diberikan untuk mengabdi sebagai "Kadi" (hakim) dan fisikawan. Di dunia barat, Ibnu Rusyd dikenal sebagai Averroes dan komentator terbesar atas filsafat Aristoteles yang memengaruhi filsafat Kristen di abad pertengahan, termasuk pemikir semacam St. Thomas Aquinas. Banyak orang mendatangi Ibnu Rusyd untuk mengkonsultasikan masalah kedokteran dan masalah hukum.
[sunting] Pemikiran Ibnu Rusyd

Karya-karya Ibnu Rusyd meliputi bidang filsafat, kedokteran dan fikih dalam bentuk karangan, ulasan, essai dan resume. Hampir semua karya-karya Ibnu Rusyd diterjemahkan ke dalam bahasa Latin dan Ibrani (Yahudi) sehingga kemungkinan besar karya-karya aslinya sudah tidak ada.

Filsafat Ibnu Rusyd ada dua, yaitu filsafat Ibnu Rusyd seperti yang dipahami oleh orang Eropa pada abad pertengahan; dan filsafat Ibnu Rusyd tentang akidah dan sikap keberagamaannya.

bisa buktikan gak Ibn Rušd itu muslim??????????????....orang kristen arab namanya juga berbau arab lohhhhhh

kermit katak lucu wrote:bisa buktikan gak Ibn Rušd itu muslim??????????????....orang kristen arab namanya juga berbau arab lohhhhhh

IBNU RUSYD

Dunia barat (Eropa) pantas berterima kasih pada Ibnu Rusyd. Sebab, melalui pemikiran dan karya-karyanyalah Eropa melek peradaban. "Suka atau tidak, filosofi Cordova dan mahagurunya, Ibnu Rusyd, telah menembus sampai ke Universitas Paris," tulis Ernest Barker dalam The Legacy of Islam.

Dilahirkan pada 1126 M di Cordova (Spanyol--red), Ibnu Rusyd bernama lengkap Abul Walid Muhammad ibn Ahmad ibn Muhammad ibn Rusyd. Di Barat, ia dikenal sebagai Averrous. Keluarganya dikenal memberikan perhatian dan apresiasi besar pada ilmu pengetahuan dan tergolong masyhur di kota Cordova.

Itu yang membuat Rusyd kecil haus ilmu dan menunjukkan talen serta kejeniusan yang luar biasa sejak masa kanaknya. Sementara, ayah dan kakeknya pernah menjadi kepala pengadilan di Andalusia. Bakat ini pula yang menurun kepada Rusyd, ketika ia diamanati menjabat sebagai qadi (hakim) di Sevilla (Spanyol) dan sebagai qadi al-qudaad (hakim agung) di Cordova.
Tak seperti anak-anak seusianya, masa kecil Rusyd dihabiskan untuk belajar berbagai disiplin ilmu: Alquran, tafsir, hadits, fiqih, serta mendalami ilmu-ilmu eksakta seperti matematika, astronomi, logika, filsafat dan kedokteran.

Itu sebabnya, Ibnu Rusyd dikenal sebagai ahli berbagai ilmu pengetahuan. Sebagai qadi al-qudaad, ia dekat dengan para amir (penguasa) Dinasti Al Muwahhidun yang memerintah saat itu, khususnya dengan Abu Yusuf Yakqub al Mansur, amir dinasti ketiga Muwahhidun.

Beberapa kalangan ulama yang tidak suka dengannya, karena ajaran filsafatnya, berupaya menyingkirkan Rusyd dengan cara memfitnah bahwa dia telah menyebar ajaran filsafat yang menyimpang dari ajaran Islam. Atas tuduhan itu, Rusyd diasingkan ke suatu tempat bernama Lucena.Tak hanya itu, karya-karyanya menyangkut filsafat dibakar dan diharamkan mempelajarinya.

Sejak saat itu, filsafat tak lagi mendapat tempat dan berkembang di dunia Islam. Namun, beberapa tahun kemudian, amir Al Mansur memaafkan dan membebaskannya. Ia lalu pergi ke Maroko dan menghabiskan sisa hidupnya di negeri tanduk Afrika Utara ini hingga wafatnya pada 1198 M.

Pemikiran Rusyd

Membaca Ibnu Rusyd, yang paling menonjol adalah aspek falsafaty (estetika logika dan filsafat) yang terbentang di hampir setiap karyanya. Menurutnya, nilai filsafat dan logika itu sangat penting, khususnya dalam mentakwilkan dan menafsirkan Alquran sebagai kitab teks, yang selalu membutuhkan artikulasi makna dan perlu diberi interpretasi kontekstual dan bukan artikulasi lafadz.

Rusyd memandang bahwa Islam tidak melarang orang berfilsafat, bahkan Al Quran, dalam banyak ayatnya, memerintahkan umatnya untuk mempelajari filsafat. Menurut Rusyd, takwil (pentafsiran) dan interpretasi teks dibutuhkan untuk menghindari adanya pertentangan antara pendapat akal dan filsafat serta teks Alquran. Ia memaparkan, takwil yang dimaksud di sini adalah meninggalkan arti harfiah ayat dan mengambil arti majasinya (analogi). Hal ini pula yang dilakukan para ulama klasik periode awal dan pertengahan.

Dalam kaitan kandungan Alquran ini, Rusyd membagi manusia kepada tiga kelompok : awam, pendebat, dan ahli fikir. Kepada ahli awam, kata Rusyd, Alquran tidak dapat ditakwilkan, karena mereka hanya dapat memahami secara tertulis. Demikian juga kepada golongan pendebat, takwil sulit diterapkan. Takwil, secara tertulis dalam bentuk karya, hanya bisa diperuntukkan bagi kaum ahli fikir.

Dalam cakra pandang itulah, kata Rusyd, takwil atas teks secara benar dapat dilakukan dan dipahami oleh ahlul fikir. Pemikiran Rusyd tersebut kemudian dikenal sebagai teori perpaduan agama dan filsafat. Sementara itu, menyangkut pemaknaan atas Quran, Rusyd berpendapat bahwa Alquran memiliki makna batin di samping makna lahir.

Berkaitan dengan penciptaan alam, Rusyd yang menganut teori Kausalitas (hukum sebab-akibat), berpendapat bahwa memahami alam harus dengan dalil-dalil tertentu agar dapat sampai kepada hakikat dan eksistensi alam.

Setidaknya ada tiga dalil untuk menjelaskan teori itu, kata Rusyd, yaitu:

• Pertama, dalil inayah yakni dalil yang mengemukakan bahwa alam dan seluruh kejadian yang ada di dalamnya, seperti siang dan malam, matahari dan bulan, semuanya menunjukkan adanya penciptaan yang teratur dan rapi yang didasarkan atas ilmu dan kebijaksanaan. Dalil ini mendorong orang untuk melakukan penyelidikan dan penggalian yang terus menerus sesuai dengan pandangan akal fikirannya. Dalil ini pula yang akan membawa kepada pengetahuan yang benar sesuai dengan ketentuan Alquran.
• Kedua, dalil ikhtira' yaitu asumsi yang menunjukkan bahwa penciptaan alam dan makhluk di dalamnya nampak jelas dalam gejala-gejala yang dimiliki makhluk hidup. Semakin tinggi tingkatan makhluk hidup itu, kata Rusyd, semakin tinggi pula berbagai macam kegiatan dan pekerjaannya. Hal ini tidak terjadi secara kebetulan. Sebab, bila terjadi secara kebetulan, tentu saja tingkatan hidup tidak berbeda-beda. Ini menunjukkan adanya pencipta yang mengatur kehidupan. Dalil ini sesuai dengan syariat Islam, dimana banyak ayat yang menunjukkan perintah untuk memikirkan seluruh kejadian alam ini.
• Ketiga, dalil gerak disebut juga dalil penggerak pertama yang diambil dari Aristoteles. Dalil tersebut mengungkapkan bahwa alam semesta bergerak dengan suatu gerakan yang abadi, dan gerakan ini mengandung adanya penggerak pertama yang tidak bergerak dan berbenda, yaitu Tuhan.

Menurut Rusyd, benda-benda langit beserta gerakannya dijadikan oleh Tuhan dari tiada dan bukan dalam zaman. Sebab, zaman tidak mungkin mendahului wujud perkara yang bergerak, selama zaman itu kita anggap sebagai ukuran gerakannya. Jadi gerakan menghendaki adanya penggerak pertama atau sesuatu sebab yang mengeluarkan dari tiada menjadi wujud. Rusyd yang juga dikenal sebagai 'pelanjut' aliran Aristoteles ini, menilai bahwa substansi yang lebih dahulu itulah yang memberikan wujud kepada substansi yang kemudian tanpa memerlukan kepada pemberi form (Tuhan) yang ada di luarnya.

Hal lain yang tidak lepas dari sosok Ibnu Rusyd adalah, ketika polemik hebat antara dia dengan Al Ghazali. Ketidaksepakatan Al Ghazali terhadap filsafat (hingga mengkafirkan Rusyd) ia tuangkan dalam buku berjudul Tahafutul Falasifah (Kerancuan Filsafat). Rusyd membalas dengan menulis Tahafutut Tahaafut (Kerancuan dari Kerancuan).

Polemik hebat keduanya misalnya dalam masalah bangkitnya kembali manusia setelah meninggal. Menurut Rusyd, pembangkitan yang di maksud kaum filsuf adalah pembangkitan ruhy, bukan jasmani. Pandangan ini berakar dari filsafat mereka tentang jiwa. Bagi Rusyd, juga kaum filosof lainnya, yang penting bagi manusia adalah jiwanya. Kebahagiaan dan ketenangan hakiki adalah kebahagiaan jiwa. Sedang bagi Al Ghazali, kebangkitan kembali manusia tak hanya secara ruh, tapi juga jasmaniyah.

Rusyd juga mengajari kita bagaimana membangun rules of dialogue, dalam kaitan memahami 'orang lain' di luar kita. Teorinya ini ia dasarkan pada tiga prinsip epistemologis, yaitu:

• Pertama, keharusan untuk memahami 'yang lain' dalam sistem referensinya sendiri. Dalam kasus ini, terlihat dari penerapan metode aksiomatik dalam menafsirkan diskursus filosofis ilmu-ilmu Yunani.
• Kedua, dalam kaitan relasi kita dengan barat, adalah prinsip menciptakan kembali hubungan yang subur antara dua kutub dengan mengedepankan hak untuk berbeda. Ibnu Rusyd membela pendapat bahwa tidak ada kontradiksi antara kebenaran agama dan filsafat, tapi terjadi harmoni di antara keduanya. Harmoni tidak berarti sama dan identik. Karena itu, hak untuk berbeda harus dihargai.
• Ketiga, mengembangkan sikap toleransi. Rusyd menolak cara-cara Al Ghazali menguliti para filosof tidak dengan tujuan mencari kebenaran. "Tujuan saya," kata Al Ghazali, "adalah mempertanyakan tesis mereka dan saya berhasil." Ibnu Rusyd menjawab, "Ini tidak sewajarnya dilakukan oleh orang terpelajar karena tujuan orang terpelajar tak lain adalah mencari kebenaran dan bukan menyebarkan karaguan."

Terlepas dari perbedaan itu, betapapun Ibnu Rusyd telah mengajarkan kita prinsip dan nilai-nilai beragama yang rasional, toleran, dan ramah. Pengalaman dan pelajaran yang baik di masa lalu itu pula yang pernah mengantarkan kejayaan Islam di abad pertengahan.

Barat Terkagum Karya Rusyd

Pemikiran dan karya-karya Ibnu Rusdy sampai ke dunia Barat melalui Ernest Renan, seorang penulis dan sejarawan asal Perancis. Renan, penulis biografi Rusyd berjudul Averroes et j'averroisme mengatakan, filosof Rusyd telah menulis lebih dari 20 ribu halaman dalam berbagai disiplin ilmu. Apresiasi dunia Barat yang demikian besar terhadap karya Rusyd, kata Alfred Gillaume dalam "Warisan Islam", menjadikan Rusyd lebih menjadi milik Eropa dari pada milik Timur. "Averroisme tetap merupakan faktor yang hidup dalam pemikiran Eropa sampai kelahiran ilmu pengetahuan eksperimental modern," tulis Gillaume.

"Ibnu Rusyd adalah seorang rasionalis, dan menyatakan berhak menundukkan segala sesuatu kepada pertimbangan akal, kecuali dogma-dogma keimanan yang diwahyukan. Tetapi ia bukanlah free thinker, atau seorang tak beriman," tulis Phillip K Hitti.

Selain Tahaafutut Tahaafut, beberapa karya besar Rusyd lain adalah Kitab fil Kulliyat fi at Tibb (kaidah-kaidah umum dalam ilmu kedokteran) yang telah diterjemahkan ke bahasa latin dan menjadi rujukan penting kedokteran; Bidayatul Mujtahid wa Nihayatul Muqtashid (Kitab permulaan bagi mujtahid dan akhir makna/maksud); Kitab Fashl al Maqal fii ma Baina Syariah wa al Hilmah min al Ittisal, (menguraikan adanya keselarasan antara agama dan akal karena keduanya adalah pemberian Tuhan); Al Kasyf 'an Manahij al Adillah fi 'Aqaid al Millah (menyingkap masalah metodologi dan dalil-dalil kaum filsuf dalam keyakinan beragama).

ITULAH BUKTI NYA .................!